Roma people come from India. This is a truth that no one should contest today. Especially since we have a series of scientific proofs^[1] but also different old stories and legends^[2] related to the Indian origin of Roma.

One of the legends says that a Perisan shah, Bahram Gur (420 – 438 d.H.), sitting at his court in the empire and seeing that his people were sad that they didn’t have music, because there were no musicians, he sent a letter to the great king of India, Shankalat, where he asked him to send some of the most skilled musicians. And the king of India sent him a group of Indian musicians. And this is one of the first legends which talks about the autset of Roma people from India. The legend was first published by Donald Kenrick in English in The Destiny of Europe’s Gypsies^[3], then it was reproduced in Romani in Bibaxtale berša (“Unfortunate Years”).

Despite these legends and stories, scientific research on the relationship between Roma people and India, and the Romani language and languages from Inia, start to develop with the initiative of the Hungarian student, Wáli István^[4], who was studying in Holland, around 1750, when he noticed a great similarity between the language spoken by his colleagues who came to study from the North part India, and the language spoken by the Roma from his home village in Hungary. So, he made a list of words, asking students from India basic words such as: house, water, sun, nose, ear, eye, or the names: one, two, three, four, five etc. And when he went back home and asked the Roma people from his village, he got very similar answers: kher, pani, kham, nakh etc. So, through this study he noticed that the two languages ​​are extremely similar and that there is a strong connection between them, being among the first to propose such a comparative research up to that time.

And this is where the theories about the Romani language that tell us that the Romani language is a language of Indian origin began. Next, among the great linguists who search this theme were H.M.G. Grellmann and Franz Miklosich, August Pott^[5], Christoph Rüdiger^[6], Marcel Courthiade^[7] or Gheorghe Sarău^[8], which extended research from the lexical level, from the level of similarities between words, to more in-depth research aimed at the structure of the language. Afterwards, the links between Roma people and India started being studied and the analysis more detailed, being also extended to historical and cultural aspects, which are relevant for the relationship between Roma and Indian people. However, the linguistic domain remains the most consistent branch through which the connection of Roma people to India is emphasised, and also the one which should be developed furthermore.

Consequently, in our paper, we wish to illustrate some linguistic connections which highlights direct relationship between the Romani language and the Hindi languages, connections which showcase fundamental structures of the two languages. Thus, what we would like to mention from the begining is that this in this paper we included just a few elements regarding the relation betwen Romanni and Hindi, the article beeig structured in three parts:

I Morphology

II Syntax

III Lexicon

I. Morphology

1. The Noun. The noun represents a morphological category that shows multiple similarities between the Romani language and Hindi. For example, the Romani masculine noun:

Specific Romani nouns with the termination in singular o:

balo „pig”, ćhavo „boy (Roma)”, gono „bag”, lovo „money”, manro „bread” etc.

The plural of this category of nouns has the termination e:

bale „pigs”, ćhave „boys (Roma)”, gone „bags”, love „money”, manre „breads”.

And on the other hand, we have masculine nouns in Hindi that present the following similar peculiarities:

Specific Hindi nouns with the termination in singular ā:

kamrā „room”, laṛkā „boy”, baccā „child”, conā „corner”, darvāzā „door” etc.

kamrā kamrā „room”, laṛkā „boy”, baccā „child”, conā „corner”, darvāzā „door” etc.

The plural of this category of nouns in Hindi has the same termination as in Romani, e:

kamre „rooms”, laṛke „boys”, bacce „children”, cone „corners”, darvāze „doors”.

For a better illustration, we also highlight the parallel in the following table:

A series of similarities can also be observed regarding the feminine nouns. For example, in Romani:

Specific Romani feminine nouns with the termination in singular i:

bibi „aunt”, ćiriki „bird”, dori „string”, momeli „candle”, pori „tail” etc.

The plural of this category of nouns has the termination aˇ:

bibǎ „aunts”, ćirikǎ „birds”, dorǎ „strings”, momelǎ „candles”, porǎ „tails”

And on the other hand, we have feminine nouns in Hindi that present the following similar peculiarities:

Specific Hindi feminine nouns with the termination in singular ī:

laṛkī „girl”, baccī „little girl”, kursī „chair”, almarī „locker”. etc.

The plural of this category of nouns has the termination ã (and ī >iy):

laṛkiyã „girls”, bacciyã „little girls”, kursiyã „chairs”, almariyã „lockers”.

For a better illustration, we also highlight the parallel in the following table:

Another rich category that can be intensively explored from the perspective of similarities between Romani and Hindi is The Adjective. For exemple, the variable adjectives in Romani (buxlo tipe in Romani):

Masc. sg. baro „big”, laćho „good”, kalo „black”, purano „old”, nevo „new”.

Fem. sg. bari „big”, laćhi „good”, kali „black”, purani „old”, nevi „new”.

Plural. masc. + fem. bare „big”, laćhe „good”, kale „black”, purane „old”, neve „new”.

And on the other hand, we have the variable adjectives in Hindi:

Masc. sg. baṛā „big”, acchā „good”, kalā „black”, puranā „old”, nayā „new”.

Fem. sg. baṛī „big”, acchī „good”, kalī „black”, puranī „old”, nayī „new”.

Fem. pl. baṛī „big”, acchī „good”, kalī „black”, puranī „old”, nayī „new”.

Masc. pl. baṛe „big”, acche „good”, kale „black”, purane „old”, naye „new”.

For a better illustration of the similarities concerning variable adjectives in Romanian and Hindi, we also highlight the parallel in the following table:

Regarding the adjectives, relevant similarities can also be observed with regard to unvariable adjectives. For example:

Romani: śukar„beautiful”, godaˇver „smart”, nasul „bad”.

Hindi: sundar „beautiful”, jordār „smart”, lāl „red”.

Also, extremely relevant in the description of adjectives in the two languages ​​and the similarities between them is the position of the adjective in relation to the noun. Thus, we observe that in most cases the adjective is situated before the noun both in Hindi and in Romani:

And the parallel in the aspect of similarities is also present in the case of invariable adjectives:

Another grammatical category for which we would like to highlight a series of similarities between the Rromani language and Hindi is the Pronoun. For example, the Personal Pronoun in Romany and Hindi at Nominative:

As we can see, there are similarities regarding the pronouns in the 1st and 2nd person singular, the particularity for the 3rd person in Hindi being that it presents different forms for proximity and distance, an aspect that was not preserved in Romani. However, looking at other categories of pronouns in Romani, we can observe this aspect that marks proximity and distance in the case of demonstrative pronouns: kadava ”this one” (masc. sg.), kadaja ”this one” (fem. sg.); kodova ”that one” (masc. sg.), kodoja ”that one” (fem. sg.).

Also, a distinct form of pronoun found in Hindi is the one that expresses politeness: āp.

Ex.: Āp ka nām kyā hai? „What is your name?”

Polite forms of the pronoun have not been preserved in Romani, possible explanations being correlated with certain cultural aspects that refer to the early nomadism of the Roma and to the unitary communities in which the Roma lived and still live today in some regions, precisely this unitary and familiar character in which everyone knows each other closely has left no room for the preservation or development of polite pronouns. But this does not mean that there is no polite expression in the Romanian language. On the contrary. But this is expressed more in the form of a certain respect, highlighted by expressions such as bibie ”aunt” when addressing a woman, or kako ”uncle” when addressing a man, in this way being able to show consideration towards someone older in the family or to someone with a certain status in the community, these lexical elements being strongly associated with a fundamental concept from Roma culture, that of pakiv ”respect, honor, consideration”.

Strong similarities can be found also looking at Pronoun in Romani and Hindi at Genitive:

Another category is the one of The Numeral.

Here we can find strog similarities and even identical structure, even regarding the pronunciation. For example, the numeral fife: panӡ in Romani and pãj in Hindi. Exception are the numeral seven, eight and nine, borrowed from the Greek language in the period in which the Roma people travelled and lived in the Byzantine Empire. However, it remains hard to explain why specifically these three numerals were replaced in the old Romani by the Greek terms. A personal explanation cand be that maybe these numerals were related to an economic aspect, to a frequent transaction associated to some products or to a specific currency that was frequently used in that period.

Another important morphological category that must be analyzed from the perspective of the relationship between the Romani language and the languages ​​of India is the Verb.

For example the verb ”to be” in Romany si and Hindi honā:

Moreover, in addition to the similarities between the verb ”to be”, or other verbs from Romani and Hindi, a strong link regarding the verb in the two languages ​​is the similar structure of some compound verbs in Romani and Hindi:

Looking at other verbal structure, another important component that requires a detailed analysis is the expression of possession both in Romani and Hindi, or in other Indian languages. Thus, first we note the fact that the expression of possession (the equivalent of ”to have”) formed with the verb ”to be” both in the Romani language and Hindi, with the difference, however, that the pronoun form in Romani is in the Accusative case and in Genitive case for Hindi:

For example, in Hindi we will say: Ek ghar mere pās hai – „I have a house”, or: Vah ghar merā hai – „That house is mine”, and with a similar structure in Romani we will say: Si man ek kher – „I have a house”, or: Kodova si miro kher – „That house is mine”. Through this structure, that of a joint principle for expressing possesion, and the lack of a specific verb for to have, the linguistic analysis stretches over the borders of linguistics, reaching into the cultural or even spiritual aspects. A possible interpretation could be that there is a joint spirit which is not orientated to possession, to „having”, but more likely, towards the idea of ”being something next to me/ being mine, in mine possession” but with the conotation of a determined period of time and also conditioned by our human existence, or to our presence on Earth.

II. Syntax

An important difference regarding the syntax in Romanian and Hindi is given by the position of the verb in the sentence. For instance, in Hindi it has a fix place, usually at the end of the sentence: Vah lāl ghar sundar hai. „That red house is beautiful.”, while in Romanian this final position has not been preserved, the position of the verb in the sentence fluctuating depending on the context or certain aspects that want to be highlighted in speech:Kodova lolo kher si śukar./ Si śukar kodova lolo kher. „That red house is beautiful.”

This tendency of the Romani of not keeping the verb on the last position, like in the old Indian structure, appeared probably under the influence of the contact with different languages since leaving India and arriving in Balkan and European territory.

III. Lexicon

As we said from the beginning of this paper, probably the most obvious similarities between Romani and Indian languages ​​are those from the vocabulary level, these being the first elements analysed by the researchers who noted the connections between the two branches. For a more detailed exemplification, here are a series of terms with the same etymology in Romani and Hindi:

Conclusion

As we observed in this work, besides the obvious lexical similarities between Romani and Hindi, which can mirror a series of similar or even identical terms, the elements that show us and support the theories about the Romani language as a language of Indian origin are the elements that are kept deep in the structure of the language. In this sense, we have seen how aspects regarding two of the fundamental categories of a language, the noun and the verb, are extremely similar in the two languages, keeping elements regarding the form or functioning mechanisms and paradigms, but also elements of the substrate that exceed the linguistic space and illustrates important aspects of the specificity of the two cultures and of the speakers of the two languages.

In conclusion, we wish to showcase the powerful linguistic connection between the Romani and the Hindi language, which not only illustrates the joint structures on different levels of the languages, but also highlights the cultural and spiritual connections between the Roma and the Indian people, establishing an undeniable common denominator.

References

Grellmann, H.M.G., Histoire des Bohémiens, ou tableau des moeurs, usages et coutumes de ce peuple nomade, suivie de recherches historiques sur leur origine, leur langage et leur première apparition en Europe (Paris: Joseph Chaumerot, 1810);

Miklosich, Franz, Über die Mundarten und die Wanderungen der Zigeuner Europa’s, in ”Denkschriften der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften” (edition in 8 vol. (I-VIII): 1872-1877; edition in 12 vol. (I-XII): 1872-1880, Vienna;

Kenrick, Donald, Dall’ India al Mediterraneo. La migrazione degli Zingari (Roma: Centro di Ricerche Zingare, 1995) etc.)

Kenrick, Donald, Legend about Gypsy Origin (Sofia: ”Studii Romani”, vol.I, 1994).

Puxon, G.rattan, Kenrick, Donald, The Destiny of Europe’s Gypsies (London: University Press, 1972)

Petcuț, Petre, Romii. Sclavie și libertate (București: Editura Centrului Național de Cultură a Romilor, 2015).

Pott August Friedrich, Die Zigeuner in Europa und Asien. Ethnographisch-linguistische Untersuchung, vornlhmlich ihrer Herkunft und Sprache (Halle: Heynemann, 1844).

Rüdiger Jacob Carl Crystoph, Von der Sprache und Herkunft der Zigeuner aus Indien, in ”Neuster Zuwachs der teutschen fremden und allgemeinen Sprachkunde in eigenen Aufsätzen, Bücheranzeigen und Nachrichten” (Leipzig: Erstes Stück, 1872).

Courthiade Marcel, Les dialects Posa et Mitrip (Paris: ”Études Tsiganes” No 3/1991).

Sarău Gheorghe, Rromii, India și limba rromani (București: Kriterion, 1998).

NOTE

^[1] Grellmann, H.M.G., Histoire des Bohémiens, ou tableau des moeurs, usages et coutumes de ce peuple nomade, suivie de recherches historiques sur leur origine, leur langage et leur première apparition en Europe (Paris: Joseph Chaumerot, 1810); Miklosich, Franz, Über die Mundarten und die Wanderungen der Zigeuner Europa’s, in ”Denkschriften der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften” (edition in 8 vol. (I-VIII): 1872-1877; edition in 12 vol. (I-XII): 1872-1880, Vienna; Kenrick, Donald, Dall’ India al Mediterraneo. La migrazione degli Zingari (Roma: Centro di Ricerche Zingare, 1995) etc.)

^[2] Kenrick, Donald, Legend about Gypsy Origin (Sofia: ”Studii Romani”, vol.I, 1994).

^[3] Puxon, G.rattan, Kenrick, Donald, The Destiny of Europe’s Gypsies (London: University Press, 1972)

^[4] Petcuț, Petre, Romii. Sclavie și libertate (București: Editura Centrului Național de Cultură a Romilor, 2015).

^[5] Pott August Friedrich, Die Zigeuner in Europa und Asien. Ethnographisch-linguistische Untersuchung, vornlhmlich ihrer Herkunft und Sprache (Halle: Heynemann, 1844).

^[6] Rüdiger Jacob Carl Crystoph, Von der Sprache und Herkunft der Zigeuner aus Indien, in ”Neuster Zuwachs der teutschen fremden und allgemeinen Sprachkunde in eigenen Aufsätzen, Bücheranzeigen und Nachrichten” (Leipzig: Erstes Stück, 1872).

^[7] Courthiade Marcel, Les dialects Posa et Mitrip (Paris: ”Études Tsiganes” No 3/1991).

^[8] Sarău Gheorghe, Rromii, India și limba rromani (București: Kriterion, 1998).